A new phenomenon of political life. New phenomenon of political life Structure and actors of the political process

Both the Sunday day of preliminary voting for United Russia and data from various sociological studies indicate that the active part of the country’s population is interested in influencing the selection of candidates nominated by major parties for elections at various levels.

On May 22, more than 10 million Russians came to the polling stations. High voter activity, on the one hand, reflects the level of competition in regions and districts where candidates were motivated to bring their supporters to the polling stations; on the other hand, turnout reflects the interest of voters in general in a new, unique phenomenon of our political life. After all, the primaries were held for the first time on such an open and nationwide scale.

The fact that United Russia has relied on transferring the process of selecting candidates from the cabinet format to nationwide primaries is quite logical - the openness of the elections ensures voters’ confidence in the subsequent results.

And ensuring the legitimacy and openness of voting today is one of the main tasks for both the federal government and the party leadership. In this sense, yesterday’s event serves as an important building block in building public confidence in the results of the State Duma elections in September this year.

The large number of non-partisan candidates also confirms the openness and democracy of the primaries. At the same time, it was the participation of social activists, people who decided to go to the polls for the first time, that helped ensure such high voter activity.

These “new people”, who did not have internal party resources and fame, were motivated to work with voters, participated in debates, and held meetings with supporters. They brought new voters to the polling stations who had not gone to the polls before.

There were, of course, local conflicts.

But we must remember that any conflict, any competition is a sign of openness and democracy in elections. Because no conflicts occur where the results are programmed.

It is noteworthy that, according to sociologists, the idea of ​​holding a preliminary vote to select candidates for the State Duma elections is supported not only by supporters of United Russia, but also by the electorate of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and A Just Russia.

On average, about 40% of voters have a positive attitude towards this mechanism. In other words, people argue that primaries are a necessary procedure. Both social data and the real situation in the regions confirm this conclusion.

Therefore, other parties will now carefully analyze the results of the United Russia primaries. Once they are convinced of the effectiveness of this procedure, they will also have to look for certain ways to pre-select candidates. And the first attempts at some kind of internal competitive selection, including attempts to attract new people, have already been made.

The same “Fair Russia”, for example, last year held the “Fair Appeal” campaign, within the framework of which it invited non-party members to try to nominate their candidacy on the Socialist Revolutionary lists. The communists also have their own system. However, in general, holding primaries only makes sense for large parties that have a good chance of getting candidates into parliament and whose brand strengthens the candidates’ positions in the constituency.

There is no point in doing this for small parties, because primaries require a lot of resources and, most importantly, the interest of a large number of voters and a large number of candidates.

It is useless to hold primaries among a narrow circle of supporters, because with a small sample there is always a high risk of error. And the results of preliminary voting, in which many voters participate, as in the case of the United Russia primaries, can be trusted.

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New phenomena in the life of Europe and America at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries §1-2

Lesson plan: New phenomena in the field of ideology Political situation in the world Innovations in the field of economics

Political directions: Conservatives relied on the preservation of traditional values. Liberals proposed relatively new value guidelines based on the idea of ​​​​the priority of the human person. Marxists demanded a social reorganization of the world.

The main provisions of Marxism: Economic determinism, formational approach, the relationship of “base” and “superstructure”, irrationalism of capitalism, dictatorship of the proletariat

Revisionism (from the English Revision - revision, change) is an ideological movement in Marxism that advocates reforms as opposed to revolution. The new concept was first voiced by E. Berstein at the First Congress of the Second International in 1899.

“The final goal is nothing, movement is everything.” E. Bershtein

The main ideas of neoliberalism: Expanding opportunities for mass participation in the political process Optimal separation of powers Increasing the regulatory role of the state Expanding and protecting the social and economic rights of citizens

Great Britain Russia France China Ottoman Empire Austria-Hungary Germany USA Holland Italy Belgium Spain Portugal Japan Denmark Sweden The world at the beginning of the twentieth century

Inventions XIX - early XX century Telephone with disk. End of the 19th century. The first "Mercedes" 1900. The French airplane "Antoinette" in flight. 1909

Oil production in Baku. 1900s

Nikola Tesla in the laboratory.

Nikola Tesla with a light bulb.

Economic development of countries at the beginning of the 20th century. Leading industrial states: Germany USA Great Britain France Belgium Countries of the “second tier”: Russia Japan Italy Austria-Hungary Sweden Canada

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Homework: Fill out the table “New phenomena in the life of Europe and America at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century” for §1-2 Ideology Politics Economics

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Political events in Western countries in the 19th century reflected the processes taking place in the socio-economic sphere. The Industrial Revolution changed the structure of society. The 19th century in the history of European countries was the era of the formation of parliamentarism, the decomposition and final liquidation of feudal-absolutist regimes. The most widespread political trend was liberalism, which expressed the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie. Supporters of this trend advocated limiting the rights of monarchs by constitutions, demanded the creation of parliaments (based on the principle of election), the establishment of political freedoms (speech, press, meetings, demonstrations, etc.). Another important phenomenon in the life of Europe was the strengthening of national feelings, the desire for the unification of peoples and their liberation from the yoke of foreign states. In the second half of the century, a number of new national states were created.
In the 19th century, it became obvious that revolutions do not always solve all problems at once, and therefore can be repeated, making new adjustments to socio-political and economic structures. The role of the leader of revolutions was played by France. France after the Great Bourgeois Revolution of 1789 survived three more - in 1830, 1848 and 1871. Moreover, only the last revolution put an end to the monarchical system.

In 1820-1821 and 1848 revolutions took place in Italy. A series of revolutionary explosions shook Spain until the 1870s, but the country still remained semi-feudal. In 1848, a revolution began in Germany, but it did not solve all the problems: the legacy of feudalism continued to affect various areas of life. In that era, another curious feature of revolutions emerged - their synchronicity. In 1830, the Belgian revolution broke out, and uprisings began in Russian Poland, Italy and some German states. The revolution of 1848, following France, swept through Germany and Italy.
An example of an evolutionary model for the development of European society is England, which managed to preserve its traditional political institutions and avoid revolution, although here, too, in the 30s and 40s, social problems reached extraordinary severity. During the industrial revolution, the economic power of the bourgeoisie, primarily the industrial one, increased sharply, but its political weight still remained insignificant. The parliament was dominated by large landowners (landlords), the commercial and financial bourgeoisie. The political struggle revolved around reforming the parliamentary system in accordance with the changes taking place in society. In 1832 the first major parliamentary reform was carried out. For the first time, large industrial cities received the right of parliamentary representation; all land owners, tenant farmers, and homeowners with the required level of income achieved voting rights. The number of voters increased to 652 thousand people. The industrial bourgeoisie acquired the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country.

At the end of the 30s, workers, whose financial situation remained extremely difficult, took the path of creating their own organizations that put forward demands for broad democratic reforms: the introduction of universal suffrage, the abolition of the property qualification for parliamentarians, secret voting, etc. All these requirements were consolidated into a single document in 1836 - a charter. A mass movement for the adoption of this charter developed throughout England. Its supporters began to be called “chartists” (from “charter” - charter). In 1840 they established the National Chartist Association, which soon became an extensive organization with its own charter and funds. The policy of mutual concessions and compromises allowed the main groups of society in England to avoid open conflict and solve pressing problems through peaceful evolutionary reform.
As a result of the revolutions of the mid-19th century, liberal values ​​penetrated and became widespread in the political life of Western society. However, many social problems remained unresolved. Under these conditions, a new socio-political movement emerges, named after the main ideologist of this teaching - K. Marx - it was called Marxism. This movement was a radical reaction to the rapid development of bourgeois relations. Marxists believed that capitalism inherently contains antagonistic contradictions that will sooner or later explode the existing system. Unlike liberals, supporters of Marxism were convinced of the impossibility of improving the capitalist system through evolutionary means. Marxism thus advocated revolutionary methods of struggle; the main driving force of the future revolution was to be the working class, organized into political parties. The key provisions of Marxist theory are set out in the “Manifesto of the Communist Party,” written in 1848 by K. Marx and F. Engels, who developed them in a number of other fundamental works. The founders of Marxism conducted not only theoretical, but also active propaganda activities. In 1864, the First International was created, which had sections in almost all European countries and the USA. Later, on their basis, national social democratic parties arose, uniting in 1889 to form the Second International. By the end of the century, the party had turned into mass organizations that played a significant role in political life in a number of countries (such as Germany, France, Italy).
Along with political party building, in the last third of the 19th century, the labor movement followed the path of creating trade unions that defended the rights of workers and fought to improve the living and working conditions of workers.
A common phenomenon in the development of Western civilization in the 19th century was the formation of the foundations of civil society. This process, which took place in a complex struggle, developed in different countries far from the same: if in England and the USA it took an evolutionary path, then many other Western countries (primarily France) experienced numerous revolutionary upheavals along the way. Political development consolidated the rapid socio-economic changes taking place in Western countries, and also led to the formation of a completely new political, legal and social picture of society.

Lecture No. 20Development of culture in the modern era. Science to technology. In the 19th century, major scientific discoveries were made, which led to a revision of previous ideas about the world around us, receiving the name revolutions in natural science. The leading role in the development of science during this period was played by England, Germany, and France. A feature of the development of sciences in the first half of the 19th century. began the accumulation of material obtained as a result of observations and experiments, the implementation of which is increasingly being improved. In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Based on these data, theories and concepts are created that are the basis of modern science. Significant progress was achieved in such sciences as physics, thanks to the discovery of the law of conservation of energy by D. Joule (England) and R. Mayer (Germany), and the research of G. Ohm and M. Faraday in the field of electricity; chemistry, where the foundations of the theory of the atomic structure of matter were deepened and expanded, biology, within the framework of which the English scientist Charles Darwin developed his revolutionary concept of the origin of biological species through natural selection. At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. American T. Morgan and German A. Weissman laid the foundations of genetics - the science of the transmission of hereditary characteristics in flora and fauna. Achievements in biological sciences gave impetus to the development of medicine. European scientists are developing vaccines against diseases previously considered incurable. At the end of the 18th century. E. Jenner creates a vaccine against smallpox, Pasteur in the mid-19th century. - against rabies. Scottish professor D. Lister introduced antiseptics into surgical practice, and D. Simpson introduced painkillers. The greatest achievement was the discovery in 1895 by the German scientist W. Roentgen of “X-rays,” thanks to which significant advances in the field of diagnostics and surgery were achieved. The result of these and other inventions was a sharp reduction in mortality, the cessation of global epidemics, and an increase in the average life expectancy of Europeans. A feature of the 19th century, compared to previous centuries, was the rapid introduction of various technical innovations into life. European scientists have achieved significant results in the development of means of communication: in 1835, the American S. Morse invented the writing telegraph apparatus, in 1876 A. Bell - the telephone, at the beginning of the 20th century. A. Popov and G. Marconi designed the first radio receivers. In the second half of the 19th century, the first internal combustion engine was created. German designers G. Daimler and K. Benz are considered the fathers of the modern car. In the second half of the 19th century. Numerous technical innovations became increasingly accessible, affecting all spheres of life: by the beginning of the 20th century, the use of gas, electricity, telephone, and so on in everyday life had become commonplace. Literature and art. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the struggle of opposing movements, neoclassicism and romanticism. Many poets, composers and artists of romanticism were inspired by the political movement for national independence. Romanticism also penetrates into architecture, which contributed to the spread of the neo-Gothic style in Europe in the first half of the 19th century, and into painting. The largest artists who created their paintings within the framework of this style were F. Goya and E. Delacroix, who drew the subjects of their works from the revolutionary events in Europe in the first half of the 19th century. By the end of the 30s, romanticism began to be supplanted by the realistic movement, which was based on the problem of the social significance of art. Supporters of this movement sought to depict the world “as it is.” This tendency manifested itself in the novels of Charles Dickens, the social “panoramas” of O, Balzac, and the objective realism of G. Flaubert. From the middle of the 19th century. in architecture, where new materials, primarily iron and steel, are beginning to be widely used. In the 30s and 40s, a departure from classicism and neo-Gothic was planned - a symbiosis of various styles of previous eras took place. Luxurious buildings are created with lush heaps of stucco and sculptural decorations, a predominance of uneven lines and surfaces. This pseudo-style, demonstrating the eclectic artistic tastes of the wealthy bourgeoisie, was magnificent and luxurious, but not distinguished by grandeur and grace. At the end of the 19th century. The latest achievements of technical thought penetrate into architecture: in the late 80s. the enormous steel Eiffel Tower was built in Paris; Skyscrapers are starting to be built in the USA. All these new phenomena acted as a kind of demonstration of the growing wealth of the bourgeoisie, the power and greatness of the Western world. The most significant phenomenon in the art of Europe in the second half of the 19th century was the formation of a new artistic movement - impressionism. The focus of the plot was not on a real object or phenomenon, but on human perception, the psychological state that they evoked. The largest representatives of this movement, which was not recognized as art for a long time and caused the condemnation of many critics, were P. Cezanne, C. Monet, Van Gogh, P. Gauguin and others. Rapid economic development, growth in the well-being of Europeans, scientific and technological achievements - all this contributed to significant achievements in the field of art. In the 19th century art becomes more democratic and ceases to be “entertainment for the elite.” The growing literacy of the population leads to the fact that ever wider circles of society become familiar with the latest works of writers, poets, and playwrights; Numerous public museums, galleries, and exhibitions open. Culture and art in the 19th century reflected all the most important changes in the life of Western civilization, being the most important indicator of the rapid socio-economic development that took place at that time.

Lecture No. 21 The world in 1900 - 1914

By the end of the 19th century. Industrial civilization took hold in a number of European countries and the United States. This type of civilization guaranteed society not only a relatively stable standard of living, but also a wide range of rights, including the right to own and freely dispose of private property. The policy of social reforms, increasingly pursued in leading countries (England, Germany, the USA, etc.), helped to alleviate tensions in society.
S Sh A. First place by the end of the 19th century. consolidated in the United States, the pace of development was constantly accelerating. In economics. By the beginning of the century, the United States was in first place in the smelting of iron and steel and coal mining. The length of railroads grew rapidly, and the United States became the birthplace of mass automobile production. The famous entrepreneur G. Ford established mass production at the beginning of the century. Their prices have been constantly decreasing. The development of the highway network strengthened the US single domestic market. At the end of the 19th century. The United States moved to an active foreign policy. As a result of the war with Spain, the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam came under the control of the United States. The Americans achieved the declaration of independence of Cuba, which actually became dependent on the United States. American government circles contributed to the separation of Panama from Colombia in 1903. The United States built the Panama Canal, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; The Republic of Panama also became dependent on the United States. Not having managed to gain a certain zone of influence in China, the United States put forward the “open door” doctrine, the essence of which was to establish equal terms of trade in China for all interested powers.
Germany. At the beginning of the 20th century, the German Empire was a union of princes under the leadership of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty. The political system was semi-absolutist: the emperor was the supreme commander of the army and had the right to appoint and remove the head of government (chancellor). Parliament (Reichstag) only discussed draft new laws and the budget, as approved by the emperor. Prussian bureaucrats constituted the top of the state apparatus and the army. After its unification, Germany began to quickly catch up with developed countries: by the beginning of the 20th century. it was ahead of England, and on the eve of the First World War it took first place in Europe and second in the world (after the USA) in terms of industrial production. An important feature of the German economy was the rapid growth of the war industry. Germany's economic success was greatly facilitated by the expansion of the domestic market, the introduction of a single currency, receiving indemnities from France, the seizure of Alsace and Lorraine, rich in natural resources, and the use of the industrial experience of other countries.
Since the late 90s. Germany began to lay claim to the creation of a colonial empire, entering into the struggle to redistribute the world already divided between the great powers: it took part in the division of China, acquired island territories, spread its influence in Asia Minor, and made aggressive plans regarding the Middle East, the Balkans and Russia (“ onslaught to the East"), in western Africa sought to capture Morocco.
Great Britain. In the last decades of the 19th century, England lost its economic leadership: the rate of industrial development fell and the total volume of production decreased. This was explained, first of all, by technical backwardness: the production equipment that England was the first to introduce in its factories during the industrial revolution was significantly outdated by the end of the 19th century. Agriculture in England also experienced serious difficulties; its profitability was low. The most important source of profit for the English bourgeoisie was banking, especially the export of capital abroad, that is, the creation of enterprises in other countries of the world with British money. By the beginning of the 20th century, England had become a world banker and still had the largest merchant and military fleet, which allowed it to maintain dominance on the seas. England continuously expanded its colonial possessions, capturing territories in various parts of the world. The political system of Great Britain is characterized by a two-party system, that is, the alternation of liberal (Whig) and conservative (Tory) parties in power. At the same time, the party that was in opposition criticized the party that was in power.
In foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century, England set a course to soften contradictions with France and Russia. The agreements concluded in 1904 and 1907 marked the beginning of the existence of an alliance opposing German interests - the Entente (Triple Entente).

General history. Grade 11. Plenkov O.Yu., Andreevskaya T.P., Shevchenko S.V., Ed. Myasnikova V.S.

M.: 2011. - 336 p.

The textbook continues the course of general history, covering the period from the end of the First World War to the present. The combination of regional and problem approaches allows us to see how events in individual countries influenced the course of global development. The historical process is presented as a natural movement along the path of globalization, growing interdependence and interconnectedness of the countries of the world. The methodological apparatus of the textbook is focused on developing the system of skills necessary for students to successfully master a history course. Questions and assignments, adapted texts of historical documents, illustrations and maps will help in understanding the educational material at the most accessible level.

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Download: 02 .09.2016, links removed at the request of the publishing house "Ventana-Graf" (see note)

Table of contents
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Countries of the world on the eve of modern times
§ 1. New phenomena in the political life of the world 6
§ 2. Socio-economic development of the countries of the world in the last third of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century in 17
Chapter 2. World War I
§ 3. Causes of the First World War. The course of military operations in 1914-1916 28
§ 4. End of the First World War. Versailles-Washington system 40
Chapter 3. The crisis of democracy and totalitarianism in the interwar period
§ 5. Countries of Europe and the USA during the period of post-war crisis and stabilization 1924-1929 55
§ 6. World crisis of 1929-1933. and Western democracies 66
§ 7. The phenomenon of totalitarianism: Italy and Germany 74
Chapter 4. World War II
§ 8. International relations in the 1930s 84
§ 9. The beginning of the Second World War and its transformation into a global conflict (1939-1942) 94
§ 10. Suppression of aggression in 1942-1945. The end and results of the Second World War 109
§ 11. Conferences of the Allied Powers in 1943-1945: on the path to a new world order 126
Chapter 5. “Cold War”
§ 12. Origins and meaning of the Cold War 136
§ 13-14. Global confrontation in Asia. Political changes in the Third World countries during the Cold War 147
§ 15. Decolonization of Africa 163
§ 16. Latin America: between authoritarianism and democracy 172
Chapter 6. “Welfare State”: achievements and problems
§ 17. Socio-economic development during the implementation of the “welfare state” model 187
§ 18. Main trends in political development during the period of the “welfare state” (prosperity) 200
§ 19. The spiritual crisis of the West in the 1960s 211
§ 20. International relations in the 1960-1970s. Relief of international tension 218
Chapter 7. The era of post-industrial society
§ 21. Neoconservatism of the 1980-1990s: essence, main directions, results 231
§ 22. The process of democratization in the world 243
Chapter 8. The world in the era of globalization
§ 23. The main problems of world development after the end of the Cold War 255
§ 24-25. Multipolar world at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. 268
§ 26-27. Main trends in the development of education, science and art in the last third of the XIX - XX centuries 280
Conclusion. Globalization: pro et contra 304
Chronological table 311
Dictionary of concepts and terms 316
Biographical Dictionary of Social and Political Figures 323
Internet resources 333