Formation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). What are the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic? When were the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany formed?

Thus, back in 1945, at a meeting in Potsdam, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill divided Germany into four occupation zones and established quadripartite control of Berlin. This agreement was to remain in force until the Soviet Union, the USA, England and France agreed on the creation of a pan-German state and concluded a peace treaty with it.

The Cold War “buried” these plans. In September 1949, a new state emerged on the territory of the three western occupation zones - the Federal Republic of Germany. In response, in October of that year, Stalin created the German Democratic Republic.

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

In September 1949, the ruling circles of the USA, England and France completed the split of Germany, forming a separate state in the western part of the country. The West German monopolies were given the opportunity to create their own state as payment for Germany's participation in the aggressive imperialist blocs led by the United States. Simultaneously with the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, on September 21, 1949, the occupation statute developed by the governments of the United States, England and France came into force, which retained the supreme power in the Federal Republic of Germany for these powers.

The Statute of Occupation defines the powers that are retained by the occupying authorities in the exercise of their supreme power, which is exercised by the governments of France, the United States and the United Kingdom.

In order to ensure the achievement of the main goals pursued by the occupation, these powers (to the occupying powers) are specifically specified.

The governments of the USA, Great Britain and France took the path of refusing to implement the decisions of the Potsdam Conference (July - August 1945), which provided for the demilitarization of Germany, the eradication of German militarism and Nazism, the elimination of monopolies and the broad democratization of the country.

In the western zones of German occupation, demilitarization and denazification were practically not carried out. Many former Nazis returned to important positions.

The Soviet Union consistently advocates the development of friendly relations with the entire German people. Believing that the normalization of relations between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany would help strengthen peace in Europe, resolve the German problem and develop mutually beneficial trade, the Soviet government addressed the German government on June 7, 1955 with a proposal to establish direct diplomatic, trade and cultural relations between both countries. And in September 1955, both governments exchanged letters on the establishment of diplomatic relations and the establishment of embassies.

Having set a course for restoring the power of monopoly capital in West Germany and dividing the country, the Western powers set as their goal the revival of German militarism in order to then use it in their interests against the USSR and other socialist countries. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Soviet Union's repeated proposals aimed at preserving German unity were rejected by the Western powers, who viewed West Germany as their future political and military ally.

The occupation authorities of the Western powers contributed in every possible way to the restoration and strengthening of the economic and political positions of the West German bourgeoisie and helped it consolidate its forces. Parties were created to represent the interests of monopoly capital. In Germany, a state apparatus was created with the help of which monopoly capital could strengthen and expand its positions and control the entire life of the country. The Western powers banned the organization of the Socialist Unity Party in West Germany. These policies, combined with the anti-communist stance of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), prevented the unification of communists and social democrats.

The labor movement was also in the process of re-establishing proletarian organizations. The lack of unity of the West German labor movement seriously hampered the struggle of progressive forces against the split of the country. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany formally proclaimed the basic democratic rights of citizens - their equality before the law, personal freedom, equality of men and women, freedom of political views, press, meetings, etc. The adoption of these points to a certain extent took into account the intensification of the struggle of West German workers for their interests .

An expression of the systematic line of the Western powers aimed at splitting Germany was the creation in 1947 of the so-called “Bisonia”, which united the American and British zones of occupation, and then “Trizonia” (in 1948), as well as the implementation of a separate monetary reform.

After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Western powers set a course for restoring the military-industrial potential and rearmament of West Germany, and for involving it in military blocs directed against the USSR and other socialist countries.

Chancellor Konradom Adenauer did everything possible to implement the plans for the remilitarization of the Federal Republic of Germany, which were hatched by the West German monopolies. In August 1950, he handed over a memorandum to the American High Commissioner in which he “reiterated his readiness to contribute in the form of a German contingent in the event of the creation of a Western European army.” The Western powers agreed to this proposal of the German Chancellor. Revanchist demands aimed at revising the results of the Second World War increasingly became the basis of the official policy of the ruling circles of Germany.

Taking a course towards the remilitarization of the country, the Adenauer government rejected all peace initiatives of the Soviet Union, in particular, its draft peace treaty with Germany of March 10, 1952. And on March 26, 1952, the Western powers signed a general agreement on relations with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany, but US, British and French troops remained on its territory. But the entire working class, all the democratic forces of the country resisted the policy of restoring West German monopoly capital and its course towards the remilitarization of West Germany. And despite the persecution, the communists continued to fight against the remilitarization of the country and to overcome the division of Germany.

As for the development of economics and politics, by the beginning of the 60s, Germany was increasingly asserting itself as the leader of Western European states. Its ruling circles have increased their foreign economic and foreign policy activity. But by the end of the 60s, Germany was affected by economic and political crises.

In 1969, the SPD-FDP coalition government was formed. Chairman of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany) Wili Brandt became Federal Chancellor, and Chairman of the FDP (Free Democratic Party) Walter Scheel became Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs. In the field of foreign policy, the government took a realistic approach to assessing the situation in post-war Europe; it took into account the desire of broad sections of the West German population for détente, their desire to put an end to the dangerous remnants of the Cold War. The Brandt-Scheel government moved to improve relations with socialist countries and accepted the Soviet Union's proposal to hold negotiations. As a result, on August 12, 1970, the Moscow Treaty was signed between the USSR and Germany. Both sides expressed their desire to promote peaceful relations between all European states, pledged to resolve their disputes exclusively by peaceful means and to refrain in their mutual relations from the threat or use of force. The third article of the treaty, which established the inviolability of the borders of all states in Europe, was of key importance. The Moscow Treaty created the necessary political preconditions for a serious turn in Soviet-West German relations, which were normalized on the basis of Germany's renunciation of claims to change the existing European borders.

Of great importance for mitigating tensions in Europe was the agreement signed in September 1971 by four powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA and France on West Berlin, an important point of which was the provision that West Berlin is not an integral part of the Federal Republic of Germany and will not be continue to be managed by it.

The conclusion of the Moscow Treaty, the negotiations of L. I. Brezhnev with W. Brandt in Crimea in September 1971, especially the visit of L. I. Brezhnev in May 1973 to Germany gave impetus to the development of economic relations between the Soviet Union and the Federal Republic of Germany, put them to a qualitatively new level. Of great importance was the signing in May 1973 of an agreement between the USSR and Germany on the development of economic, industrial and technical cooperation for a period of 10 years.

German Democratic Republic (GDR)

In October 1949, the Western imperialist powers completed the division of Germany, creating a separate West German state. Under these conditions, the democratic and patriotic forces of Germany decided that the time had come to take the fate of the country into their own hands, to repel the reviving German militarism, and to prevent the spread of power of revanchists and fascists throughout Germany. To this end, the democratic forces of East Germany, on October 7, 1949, proclaimed the creation of the German Democratic Republic. The GDR emerged as the first state of workers and peasants in German history. Exercising supreme power here, the Soviet Military Administration (SVAG) carried out a number of measures for demilitarization, denazification and democratization, and created favorable conditions for the formation of a united, peace-loving, democratic Germany.

The struggle of the peace-loving forces of the German people for a new Germany was led by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Immediately after the legalization of its activities on June 11, 1945, the Central Committee of the KKE addressed the people with an appeal containing a program for democratic reforms throughout the country. The KKE oriented the working class and the working masses towards establishing an anti-fascist-democratic system in Germany. She called for the creation of new government bodies from below, to punish war criminals, to expel the Nazis from administrative and economic bodies and replace them with anti-fascists, to liquidate monopolistic associations and transfer large industrial enterprises, junker estates, as well as banks and the hands of the people. The appeal of the KPD received the approval of the working class and other sections of the German people, as well as all democratic parties and organizations.

The unity of action of the working class in East Germany was the basis for the establishment of a strong alliance of the working class with the peasantry, petty and middle bourgeoisie.

With the defeat of fascism, the old state apparatus was liquidated. In East Germany, the Nazis were removed from administrative and economic institutions. On the initiative of the communists and other anti-fascists and with the support of the SVAG, new government bodies (Landtags) were created on the ruins of Hitler's Reich, which expressed and defended the interests of the broad masses.

Of great importance for strengthening the new anti-fascist-democratic system in East Germany was the liquidation of the property of monopoly capital, this most important support of fascism. Carrying out the Potsdam decisions, SVAG in October 1945 imposed sequestration on all property belonging to the Hitlerite state, war criminals, active Nazis, as well as monopolies that participated in the outbreak of the war.

The most important distinctive feature of the development of Germany after liberation was the interweaving of the social (class) struggle of the masses with the struggle against the schismatic actions of the American-British imperialists and German reactionaries, who prevented the creation of a single independent German state. The decisions of the 2nd German People's Congress, held in March 1948, were of great importance in the struggle for the national unity of the country. It proclaimed the slogan of the struggle for a united German Democratic Republic and elected the governing body of the movement - the German People's Council. He adopted the draft constitution of the GDR and proclaimed the formation of the German Democratic Republic on October 7, 1949.

The government of the GDR declared as its program the struggle for further democratic reforms, the economic and cultural rise of the German people, for national unity, for friendship and cooperation with the Soviet | Union and all peace-loving peoples of the world. The formation of the GDR met with full support and approval from the Soviet government, which immediately recognized it and transferred all administrative functions belonging to SVAG to the GDR government. The formation of the GDR was a turning point in the history of the German people, a powerful blow to German imperialism and militarism.

Thus, with regard to relations between the Soviet Union and the GDR, in 1954 the Government of the Soviet Union was invariably guided by the desire to promote the settlement of the German problem in accordance with the interests of strengthening peace and ensuring the national reunification of Germany on democratic principles.

In view of this situation and as a result of the negotiations that the Soviet government held with the government of the German Democratic Republic, the government of the USSR recognizes the need to take further steps to meet the interests of the German people, namely:

1. The Soviet Union establishes the same relations with the German Democratic Republic as with other sovereign states.

The German Democratic Republic will be free to decide at its own discretion its internal and external affairs, including questions of relations with West Germany.

2. The Soviet Union retains in the German Democratic Republic functions related to ensuring security arising from the obligations assigned to the USSR under the agreements of the four powers.

The Soviet government took note of the statement of the government of the German Democratic Republic that it would comply with the obligations arising for the German Democratic Republic from the Potsdam Agreement on the development of Germany as a democratic and peace-loving state, as well as the obligations associated with the temporary presence of Soviet troops on the territory of the GDR.



The German Democratic Republic, or GDR for short, is a country located in the Center of Europe and has been marked on maps for exactly 41 years. This is the westernmost country of the socialist camp that existed at that time, formed in 1949 and became part of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990.

German Democratic Republic

In the north, the border of the GDR ran along the Baltic Sea; on land it bordered the Federal Republic of Germany, Czechoslovakia and Poland. Its area was 108 thousand square kilometers. The population was 17 million people. The capital of the country was East Berlin. The entire territory of the GDR was divided into 15 districts. In the center of the country was the territory of West Berlin.

Location of the GDR

The small territory of the GDR had sea, mountains and plains. The north was washed by the Baltic Sea, which forms several bays and shallow lagoons. They are connected to the sea through straits. She owned the islands, the largest of which were Rügen, Usedom and Pel. There are many rivers in the country. The largest are the Oder, Elbe, their tributaries Havel, Spree, Saale, as well as the Main, a tributary of the Rhine. Of the many lakes, the largest are Müritz, Schweriner See, and Plauer See.

In the south, the country was framed by low mountains, significantly indented by rivers: from the west the Harz, from the south-west the Thuringian Forest, from the south the Ore Mountains with the highest peak Fichtelberg (1212 meters). The north of the territory of the GDR was located on the Central European Plain, to the south lay the plain of the Macklenburg Lake District. To the south of Berlin lies a strip of sandy plains.

East Berlin

It was practically restored from scratch. The city was divided into occupation zones. After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, its eastern part became part of the GDR, and the western part was an enclave, surrounded on all sides by the territory of East Germany. According to the constitution of Berlin (West), the land on which it was located belonged to the Federal Republic of Germany. The capital of the GDR was a major center of science and culture in the country.

The Academies of Sciences and Arts and many higher educational institutions were located here. Concert halls and theaters have hosted outstanding musicians and artists from all over the world. Many parks and alleys served as decoration for the capital of the GDR. Sports facilities were built in the city: stadiums, swimming pools, courts, competition grounds. The most famous park for residents of the USSR was Treptow Park, in which a monument to the liberating soldier was erected.

Big cities

The majority of the country's population were urban residents. In a small country, there were several cities whose population exceeded half a million people. Large cities of the former German Democratic Republic, as a rule, had a fairly ancient history. These are the cultural and economic centers of the country. The largest cities include Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig. East German cities were heavily damaged. But Berlin suffered the most, where fighting took place literally for every house.

The largest cities were located in the south of the country: Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen), Dresden and Leipzig. Every city in the GDR was famous for something. Rostock, located in northern Germany, is a modern port city. World-famous porcelain was produced in Karl-Marx-Stadt (Meissen). In Jena there was the famous Carl Zeiss plant, which produced lenses, including for telescopes, and famous binoculars and microscopes were produced here. This city was also famous for its universities and scientific institutions. This is a city of students. Schiller and Goette once lived in Weimar.

Karl-Marx-Stadt (1953-1990)

This city, founded in the 12th century in the state of Saxony, now bears its original name - Chemnitz. It is the center of textile engineering and textile industry, machine tool manufacturing and mechanical engineering. The city was completely destroyed by British and American bombers and rebuilt after the war. Small islands of ancient buildings remain.

Leipzig

The city of Leipzig, located in the state of Saxony, was one of the largest cities in the German Democratic Republic before the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany. Another large city in Germany is located 32 kilometers from it - Halle, which is located in the state of Saxony-Anhalt. Together, the two cities form an urban agglomeration with a population of 1,100 thousand people.

The city has long been the cultural and scientific center of Central Germany. It is famous for its universities as well as fairs. Leipzig is one of the most developed industrial areas in East Germany. Since the late Middle Ages, Leipzig has been a recognized center of printing and bookselling in Germany.

The greatest composer Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as the famous Felix Mendelssohn, lived and worked in this city. The city is still famous today for its musical traditions. Since ancient times, Leipzig has been a major trading center; until the last war, famous fur trades took place here.

Dresden

A pearl among German cities is Dresden. The Germans themselves call it Florence on the Elbe, as there are many Baroque architectural monuments here. The first mention of it was recorded in 1206. Dresden has always been the capital: since 1485 - of the Margraviate of Meissen, since 1547 - of the Electorate of Saxony.

It is located on the Elbe River. The border with the Czech Republic runs 40 kilometers from it. It is the administrative center of Saxony. Its population numbers about 600,000 inhabitants.

The city suffered greatly from US and British air raids. Up to 30 thousand residents and refugees, most of them old people, women and children, died. During the bombing, the residence castle, the Zwinger complex, and the Semper Opera were severely destroyed. Almost the entire historical center lay in ruins.

To restore architectural monuments, after the war, all surviving parts of the buildings were dismantled, rewritten, numbered and taken out of the city. Everything that could not be restored was cleared away.

The old city was a flat area on which most of the monuments were gradually restored. The GDR government came up with a proposal to revive the old city, which lasted almost forty years. New neighborhoods and avenues were built for residents around the old city.

Coat of arms of the GDR

Like any country, the GDR had its own coat of arms, described in Chapter 1 of the constitution. The coat of arms of the German Democratic Republic was a superimposed golden hammer, representing the working class, and a compass, representing the intelligentsia. They were surrounded by a golden wreath of wheat, representing the peasantry, intertwined with the ribbons of the national flag.

Flag of the GDR

The flag of the German Democratic Republic was an elongated panel consisting of four stripes of equal width, painted in the national colors of Germany: black, red and gold. In the middle of the flag was the coat of arms of the GDR, which distinguished it from the flag of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Prerequisites for the formation of the GDR

The history of the GDR covers a very short period of time, but it is still studied with great attention by scientists in Germany. The country was severely isolated by Germany and the entire Western world. After the surrender of Germany in May 1945, there were occupation zones, there were four of them, since the former state ceased to exist. All power in the country, with all management functions, was formally transferred to the military administrations.

The transition period was complicated by the fact that Germany, especially its eastern part, where German resistance was desperate, lay in ruins. The barbaric bombings of British and US aircraft were aimed at intimidating the civilian population of cities that were liberated by the Soviet army and turning them into a pile of ruins.

In addition, there was no agreement between the former allies regarding the vision of the future of the country, which is what subsequently led to the creation of two countries - the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Basic principles of German reconstruction

Even at the Yalta Conference, the basic principles of the restoration of Germany were considered, which were later fully agreed upon and approved at the conference in Potsdam by the victorious countries: the USSR, Great Britain and the USA. They were also approved by the countries participating in the war against Germany, in particular France, and contained the following provisions:

• Complete destruction of the totalitarian state.
• Complete ban on the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it.
• Complete liquidation of the punitive organizations of the Reich, such as the SA, SS, and SD services, since they were recognized as criminal.
• The army was completely liquidated.
• Racial and political legislation was repealed.
• Gradual and consistent implementation of denazification, demilitarization and democratization.

The solution to the German question, which included the peace treaty, was entrusted to the Council of Ministers of the victorious countries. On June 5, 1945, the victorious states promulgated the Declaration of the Defeat of Germany, according to which the country was divided into four occupation zones governed by the administrations of Great Britain (the largest zone), the USSR, the USA and France. The capital of Germany, Berlin, was also divided into zones. The resolution of all issues was entrusted to the Control Council, which included representatives of the victorious countries.

Parties of Germany

In Germany, to restore statehood, the formation of new political parties that would be democratic in nature was allowed. In the eastern sector, the emphasis was on the revival of the Communist and Social Democratic Parties of Germany, which soon merged into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (1946). Its goal was to build a socialist state. It was the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic.

In the western sectors, the main political force was the CDU (Christian Democratic Union) party formed in June 1945. In 1946, the CSU (Christian Social Union) was formed in Bavaria on this principle. Their main principle is a democratic republic based on market economics with private property rights.

Political confrontations on the issue of the post-war structure of Germany between the USSR and the rest of the coalition countries were so serious that their further aggravation would have led either to a split in the state or to a new war.

Formation of the German Democratic Republic

In December 1946, Great Britain and the USA, ignoring numerous proposals from the USSR, announced the unification of their two zones. They began to call it “Bisonia” for short. This was preceded by the refusal of the Soviet administration to supply agricultural products to the western zones. In response to this, transit transportation of equipment exported from factories and factories in East Germany and located in the Ruhr region to the USSR zone was stopped.

At the beginning of April 1949, France also joined “Bizonia”, resulting in the formation of “Trisonia”, from which the Federal Republic of Germany was subsequently formed. So the Western powers, conspiring with the big German bourgeoisie, created a new state. In response to this, the German Democratic Republic was created at the end of 1949. Berlin, or rather its Soviet zone, became its center and capital.

The People's Council was temporarily reorganized into the People's Chamber, which adopted the Constitution of the GDR, which was subject to popular discussion. On September 11, 1949, the first president of the GDR was elected. It was the legendary Wilhelm Pieck. At the same time, the government of the GDR was temporarily created, headed by O. Grotewohl. The military administration of the USSR transferred all functions for governing the country to the government of the GDR.

The Soviet Union did not want the division of Germany. They were repeatedly made proposals for the unification and development of the country in accordance with the Potsdam decisions, but they were regularly rejected by Great Britain and the United States. Even after the division of Germany into two countries, Stalin made proposals for the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, provided that the decisions of the Potsdam Conference were respected and Germany was not drawn into any political or military blocs. But Western states refused this, ignoring the decisions of Potsdam.

Political system of the GDR

The form of government of the country was based on the principle of people's democracy, in which a bicameral parliament operated. The country's political system was considered to be bourgeois-democratic, in which socialist transformations took place. The German Democratic Republic included the former German states of Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Brandenburg, and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

The lower (people's) house was elected by universal secret ballot. The upper house was called the Land Chamber, the executive body was the government, which was made up of the prime minister and ministers. It was formed through an appointment made by the largest faction of the People's Chamber.

The administrative-territorial division consisted of lands consisting of districts divided into communities. The functions of the legislative bodies were performed by the Landtags, the executive bodies were the state governments.

The People's Chamber - the highest body of the state - consisted of 500 deputies, who were elected by secret ballot by the people for a period of 4 years. It was represented by all parties and public organizations. The People's Chamber, acting on the basis of laws, made the most important decisions on the development of the country, dealt with relations between organizations, compliance with the rules of cooperation between citizens, government organizations and associations; adopted the main law - the Constitution and other laws of the country.

Economy of the GDR

After the division of Germany, the economic situation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was very difficult. This part of Germany was very much destroyed. The equipment of plants and factories was exported to the western sectors of Germany. The GDR was simply cut off from its historical raw material bases, most of which were located in the Federal Republic of Germany. There was a shortage of natural resources such as ore and coal. There were few specialists: engineers, executives who left for Germany, frightened by propaganda about the brutal reprisals of the Russians.

With the help of the Union and other commonwealth countries, the economy of the GDR gradually began to gain momentum. Enterprises were restored. It was believed that centralized leadership and a planned economy served as a restraining factor for economic development. It should be taken into account that the restoration of the country took place in isolation from the western part of Germany, in an atmosphere of fierce confrontation between the two countries and open provocations.

Historically, the eastern regions of Germany were mostly agricultural, and in the western part, rich in coal and metal ore deposits, heavy industry, metallurgy and mechanical engineering were concentrated.

Without financial and material assistance from the Soviet Union, it would have been impossible to achieve a rapid restoration of industry. For the losses that the USSR suffered during the war, the GDR paid it reparation payments. Since 1950, their volume has been halved, and in 1954 the USSR refused to receive them.

Foreign policy situation

The construction of the Berlin Wall by the German Democratic Republic became a symbol of the intransigence of the two blocs. The Eastern and Western blocs of Germany increased their military forces, and provocations from the Western bloc became more frequent. It came down to open sabotage and arson. The propaganda machine was working at full capacity, taking advantage of economic and political difficulties. The Federal Republic of Germany, like many Western European countries, did not recognize the GDR. The aggravation of relations peaked in the early 1960s.

The so-called “German crisis” also arose thanks to West Berlin, which, legally being the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, was located in the very center of the GDR. The border between the two zones was conditional. As a result of the confrontation between the NATO blocs and the countries belonging to the Warsaw bloc, the SED Politburo decided to build a border around West Berlin, which consisted of a reinforced concrete wall 106 km long and 3.6 m high and a metal mesh fence 66 km long. It stood from August 1961 until November 1989.

After the merger of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, the wall was demolished, leaving only a small section that became the Berlin Wall memorial. In October 1990, the GDR became part of the Federal Republic of Germany. The history of the German Democratic Republic, which existed for 41 years, is intensively studied and researched by scientists of modern Germany.

Despite the propaganda discrediting of this country, scientists are well aware that it gave Western Germany a lot. In a number of parameters, it has surpassed its Western brother. Yes, the joy of reunification was genuine for the Germans, but there is no point in belittling the importance of the GDR, one of the most developed countries in Europe, and many in modern Germany understand this very well.

Former Nazi Germany was divided into several. Austria left the empire. Alsace and Lorraine returned to French protection. Czechoslovakia received back the Sudetenland. Statehood was restored in Luxembourg.

Part of Poland's territory, annexed by the Germans in 1939, returned to Poland. The eastern part of Prussia was divided between the USSR and Poland.

The remainder of Germany was divided by the Allies into four zones of occupation, administered by Soviet, British, American and military authorities. The countries that took part in the occupation of German lands agreed to pursue a coordinated policy, the main principles of which were denazification and demilitarization of the former German Empire.

Education Germany

A few years later, in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed on the territory of the American, British and French occupation zones, which became Bonn. Western politicians thus planned to create in this part of Germany a state built on a capitalist model, which could become a springboard for a possible war with the communist regime.

The Americans provided considerable support to the new bourgeois German state. Thanks to this support, Germany quickly began to transform into an economically developed power. In the 50s they even talked about the “German economic miracle.”

The country needed cheap labor, the main source of which was Türkiye.

How did the German Democratic Republic come into being?

The response to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany was the proclamation of the constitution of another German republic - the GDR. This happened in October 1949, five months after the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany. In this way, the Soviet state decided to resist the aggressive intentions of its former allies and create a kind of stronghold of socialism in Western Europe.

The Constitution of the German Democratic Republic proclaimed democratic freedoms to its citizens. This document also secured the leading role of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. For a long time, the Soviet Union provided the government of the GDR with political and economic assistance.

However, in terms of the rate of industrial growth, the GDR, which had taken the socialist path of development, lagged significantly behind its western neighbor. But this did not prevent East Germany from becoming a developed industrial country, where agriculture also developed intensively. After a series of rapid democratic transformations in the GDR, the unity of the German nation was restored; on October 3, 1990, the Federal Republic of Germany and the GDR became a single state.

The Second World War (1939-1945), with which the Nazi state associated the achievement of pan-European domination and the elimination of confrontation with the USSR, ended in complete military and political defeat for Germany. After the military surrender (May 8, 1945), the former German state both nominally and practically ceased to exist. Power in the country and all management functions passed to the military administration of the powers that occupied Germany.

In continuation transition period (1945-1949) the restoration of German statehood was complicated, firstly, by the devastating consequences of the war, and secondly, by the growing contradictions between former allies on issues of the future state and political structure of Europe, including Germany. This ultimately led to the split of Germany and the establishment of a special occupation regime for decades, which implied limited sovereignty of the newly formed German states.

The principles of the post-war structure of Germany were determined by the decisions of the Crimean and, most importantly, Potsdam conferences of allied states (USSR, USA and Great Britain). They were supported by France and a number of other countries that were at war with Germany. According to these decisions, the totalitarian state in Germany was to be completely destroyed: the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it were prohibited, most of the punitive institutions of the Reich (including the SA, SS and SD services) were declared criminal, the army was dissolved, racial laws and acts of political significance were repealed . The country had to consistently carry out denazification, demilitarization and democratization. Further resolution of the “German question,” including the preparation of a peace treaty, was placed in the hands of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Allied States.

June 5, 1945 The Allied states promulgated the Declaration of the defeat of Germany and the organization of a new order of government. The country was divided into 4 occupation zones, which were placed under the administration of Great Britain (the largest zone by territory), the USA, the USSR and France; The capital, Berlin, was subject to joint management. To resolve general issues, an allied Control Council was formed from the commanders-in-chief of the four occupation armies, decisions in which would be made on the principle of unanimity. Each zone created its own administration, similar to a military governorship. The governors were entrusted with all issues of restoring civil life, implementing the policy of denazification and demilitarization, as well as the prosecution of Nazi criminals, the return of previously forcibly displaced persons and prisoners of war of all nationalities.

After the establishment of military administration, activities were allowed in all zones political parties democratic direction. The new parties were to play a major role in the restoration of state structures and in the political organization of the population (albeit for different purposes from the perspective of the USSR and the Western powers). In the eastern zone of occupation (USSR), the revived Social Democratic and Communist parties became the dominant political force. Under pressure from the Soviet administration and under the leadership of leaders who were in the USSR during the war, they merged into Socialist Unity Party of Germany(April 1946), which set the goal of establishing a socialist state in the country in the spirit of revolutionary Marxism and with a complete social reorganization of the country along the Soviet model. In the occupation zones of the Western powers, the newly formed party became the head of the political processes - Christian Democratic Union(June 1945); in Bavaria, a similar association became Christian Social Union(January 1946). These parties stood on the platform of democratic republicanism, the creation of a social market economy society based on private property. At the same time, the Social Democratic Party of Germany was revived in the western zones (June 1946).

Differences in the political courses of the parties in the eastern and western zones obviously led to civil confrontation in the country. In the conditions of a sharp divergence in the military-political goals of the USSR and the USA in Europe, their positions regarding the fate of Germany (the USA assumed the political fragmentation of the country into several independent lands, the USSR - the creation of a single state of “people's democracy”) such a confrontation would result in a new world war. Therefore, the situation predetermined the state division of Germany, the creation on the territory of the former Reich (within the borders of 1937; according to the fundamental decisions of the allied conferences, all “new acquisitions” were torn away from the country, in addition, Silesia and East Prussia went to Poland and the USSR) of two new states.

Education of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic

During 1945 - 1948 the western zones were consolidated. Administrative reforms were carried out in them. In 1945, the division into historical lands was restored, and local representative bodies - Landtags and land governments - were revived under the control of military authorities. Unification of the British and American zones of occupation ( in the so-called Bisonia) in December 1946 led to the formation of a unified body of power and administration. This is how I became Economic Council(May 1947), elected by the Landtags and authorized to make general financial and economic decisions. In connection with the spread of the American “Marshall Plan” (which provided for financial and economic assistance to devastated Europe) to Germany, these decisions acquired an increasingly unifying significance for the Western zones. (And at the same time, the implementation of the “Marshall Plan” contributed to the separation of the eastern zone, since the USSR government rejected it). The Council of Lands took shape in Bisonium - a kind of second government chamber, as well as the Supreme Court; in essence, the functions of the central administration were performed by the Administrative Council, controlled by the Economic Council and the Council of Lands.

Further differences between the Western Allies and the USSR regarding the post-war structure of Germany, the difference in the first economic reforms in the East and West of Germany predetermined the course of the Western Allies towards state isolation of the Western zones. In February-March and April-June 1948, at the London conferences of 6 allied countries (USA, UK, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg), a political decision was made to create a special West German state. In 1948, the French zone of occupation was annexed to Bisonia (the so-called “Trisonia” was formed). In June 1948, the West German states carried out their own monetary reform. July 1, 1948. The military governors of the Western powers proclaimed the conditions for the formation of the West German state (according to special instructions to the constitution preparation group that began work in August 1948, the Western state was to become federal). In May 1949, the process of discussion and approval of the developed West German constitution was completed. At the next session of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the victorious states (May-June 1949), the split became, as it were, officially recognized.

Federalism enshrined in the Constitution meant that individual German states enjoyed limited sovereignty, had their own constitutions, their own representative and government bodies, their own legislation (within the limits established by the Constitution), but “federal law has precedence over the law of the lands” (Article 31). The Federal Republic of Germany as a whole was the subject of international relations. The constitutional structure of the lands was obliged to comply with the principles of the Bonn Constitution. The exclusive competence of the federation included foreign relations, defense, citizenship, the foundations of the financial and economic system, transport and communications, trade and industry. The rest was considered the field of competing legislation (i.e. the states could legislate in other areas in the absence of federal regulations). The lands were assigned the obligation to implement federal laws as their own - that is, through the same administration. From the old German order of the 19th century. the right of execution was transferred - coercion by the federation in relation to any land.

The Constitution of the GDR of 1949 established the basic principles of the organization of the state: democracy, political dominance of the SED, a combination of legislative and governmental powers of bodies of democratic representation. According to the Constitution, democratic freedoms were recognized for the citizens of the GDR (speech, press, assembly, unions), equality on the basis of gender or nationality was stipulated, and national minorities retained the right to use their language. The state took upon itself the protection of marriage and family. The Constitution also secured property rights, but stipulated that the content of property rights is entirely determined by its social purpose: “Property obliges” (Articles 22-24). Forced alienation of property in the public interest was allowed.

The Constitution recognized formal political pluralism in the form of the existence of several parties. The dominant political force has become Socialist Unity Party of Germany(1946), which continued the traditions of the KKE; it was also the most massive socio-political organization (over 2 million members). Along with it, parties of a democratic direction were also formed, but with a somewhat special social composition: the Peasant Democratic Party (1948), which united supporters of socialist cooperation in the countryside, the National Democratic Party (1948), representing the interests of artisans and “individuals”, the Liberal Democratic Party ( 1945) and the Christian Democratic Union (1945), which mainly united the democratic intelligentsia. All these parties were relatively small (no more than 100 thousand members) and participated in the political process only under the leadership of the SED as part of the so-called. National Front; According to the election results, seats in government bodies were distributed on the basis of the established party quota (with more than double the advantage of SEPP.

The supreme body of state power in the GDR was People's Chamber. She was elected by the population (from 21 years old) of 400 deputies for 4 years on the basis of universal suffrage. Deputy seats were distributed according to a quota between parties (117 seats - SED, 52 - others, the rest to other public organizations - on the basis of the 1958 law). A special feature was that deputy deputies were also elected, who took their places if they moved to another job. The People's Chamber had the rights of legislation, control over government activities, and voting of the budget.

In addition to the People's Chamber, the Chamber of Lands– based on the proportional representation of the 5 states that formed the GDR. However, in 1952, the land territorial division was destroyed, and new regions (14) and districts (217) were formed. Therefore, in December 1958, the Chamber of Lands was abolished and the parliament became unicameral.

The People's Chamber was at the head of the system people's representatives regions, districts. Formally, having been proclaimed local government bodies, local representative offices were only authorized to ensure public order, cultural and educational activities on their territory, that is, they were ordinary bodies of self-government, while higher authorities retained the right to cancel decisions of lower ones.

The head of state was the president. He was elected at a joint meeting of the People's Chamber and the Chamber of Lands (the oldest communist, V. Pieck, was elected the first president of the GDR in 1949). The president had important government powers: publishing laws, membership in the government, international representation, and the right to pardon. With the death of V. Pick in 1960, the post of president was abolished. The role of collective head of state passed to State Council, which was formed by the People's Chamber for 4 years. The State Council was also entrusted with supervision of local authorities; it formed the National Defense Council - a special military-political institution, the powers of which, under certain conditions, exceeded the powers of any government body except the Central Committee of the SED.

The People's Chamber also formed government– Council of Ministers (consisting of a chairman, deputies, ministers, etc.). The government was also considered a coalition (by party), but important posts were awarded only to representatives of the SED.

In 1968, a new constitution was adopted in the GDR. It was developed by decision of the VII Congress of the SED (1967). The basis for the essentially new version of the Basic Law was the concept of “democracy of victorious socialism,” put forward at the VI Congress of the SED (1963). A nationwide plebiscite on April 6, 1968 approved the Constitution (by an overwhelming majority of 92% of those eligible to vote). Later, in 1974, additional ideological amendments were made to the Constitution.

Constitution of 1968 generally reproduced the existing system of government and management bodies. The People's Chamber, the only legislative body, was proclaimed “the supreme government body of the GDR” (Article 48). It consisted of 500 deputies elected for 5 years by universal, equal and secret ballot. No restrictions (like those that existed in 1949, based on the principles of “class democracy” were not expected). The powers of the head of state were left to the State Council, in which the role of the Chairman of the Council, who performed foreign policy and organizational functions independently, increased. The government also retained its previous status. The rights of local people's representatives were somewhat expanded.

The most detailed were the constitutional sections on the rights of citizens: the right to participate in political, social and cultural life, to engage in culture, sports, etc. was declared here. The Constitution established centralized leadership and planned management of the socialist economy as the defining principle of the economy. A significant part of the new ideological and political legal provisions of the Constitution was due to the need to harmonize state legal norms with international documents and UN conventions, and had no real legal significance in domestic life.

In mid-1989, due to not entirely clear internal reasons, the GDR found itself in a deep socio-political crisis. Stagnation in the economy due to the socialist economic system, the increase in dictatorial aspirations in the state practice of the SED, the refusal of the SED leadership to even formally liberalize the system (like “perestroika” in the USSR) and, in connection with this, the cooling of relations with the USSR and the leadership of the CPSU caused public discontent. A mass exodus of GDR citizens began abroad, mainly to West Germany. The leadership of the SED Central Committee took the path of police dictatorship, which predetermined both the further growth of discontent and the foreign policy isolation of the GDR. Under these conditions, the plan (of “10 points”) for the state-political unification of Germany, put forward by German Chancellor Kohl, became decisive for the fate of Germany. The development of events, however, somewhat modified the prospects outlined in the plan. The government of the GDR and the leadership of the SED practically lost control of the state, and popular demonstrations swept across the country. Based on its own foreign policy interests, the USSR refused to support an independent German eastern state and agreed with the proposals of Germany and its former allies on the withdrawal of Soviet troops and corresponding material compensation. With the consent of the four powers (USA, UK, France and the USSR), the GDR and West Germany merged into a single state.

The creation of a new united Germany was based on special agreements between the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany. In May 1990, a monetary and socio-economic union was formalized, and in August 1990, a state-political union. Attempts by the part of the SED that remained active (transformed into Party of Democratic Socialism) to defend the independence of the eastern part ended in failure, because the majority of the population did not support the party in the elections to local authorities. October 3, 1990 The GDR ceased to exist as a separate state. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949 came into force on its territory, becoming all-German. East Germany was re-divided into the historical 5 states, which received all rights according to the Bonn Constitution. The People's Army of the GDR, the security services, and the police were liquidated, partially merging into the corresponding institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany. All-German elections (December 1990) brought victory to the united Christian Democratic Union, which until the end of the 20th century. retained the status of the ruling party in Germany.

The unification made Germany the most powerful Western European state, which began to play a decisive role in the structures of a united Europe.

Omelchenko O.A. General History of State and Law. 1999

The London meeting of the Western powers on Germany in 1948 gave impetus to the acceleration of measures to create a constitution for the future independent state of West Germany. On September 1, 1948, after the official merger of the three western occupation zones into one, a Parliamentary Council was created in Bonn from representatives of the West German elite with the rights of a temporary legislative body of the West German lands. Its leader was the famous politician, lawyer by training, 73-year-old Konrad Adenauer. He had a reputation as a moderate Francophile and a patriot of "European Germany". K. Adenauer did not like the warlike and revanchist Prussian spirit, considering it the cause of Germany's troubles. In 1945, after the occupation of the country by Allied forces, K. Adenauer headed the Christian Democratic Union, which became the most influential political party in the country.
On May 1, 1949, the Parliamentary Council approved a new constitution, on the basis of which on August 14, 1949, elections were held to the new West German parliament - the Bundestag, on behalf of which on September 20 the creation of a separate state - the Federal Republic of Germany - was proclaimed. The first head of its government (chancellor) was K. Adenauer. The Bundestag adopted a statement on the extension of the new constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany to the territory of the lands that were part of Germany within the borders of 1937. This step, together with the very fact of the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany, was negatively perceived in the USSR, which refused to recognize the West German state.
After the proclamation of the Federal Republic of Germany, Moscow's hands were untied in the German question. Now it was impossible to blame her for initiating the split in Germany, the responsibility for which fell on the United States. During 1945-1949 in the eastern sector there were processes of denazification and consolidation of leftist forces around the communists. The Communist Party of Germany itself in the Soviet zone in 1946 was united with the Social Democratic Party into the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED). The activities of the old anti-fascist non-communist parties - the Christian Democratic Union, the Liberal Democratic Party - were not prohibited. They subsequently survived in the GDR as parties allied to the communists. The administrative structure in the eastern sector of Germany was ready to be transformed into a public administration system.
On October 7, 1949, the People's Congress from among representatives of the East German public, meeting in East Berlin, proclaimed the creation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The Soviet Union recognized the GDR and established diplomatic relations with it. Other people's democracies followed his example. SED leader Wilhelm Pieck became president of the GDR. In 1950, the GDR signed an agreement with Poland recognizing the existing border between the two states, and with Czechoslovakia a declaration on the absence of mutual territorial claims and recognizing the resettlement of the German population from the territory of Czechoslovakia as irreversible.

2. Germany and the Marshall Plan

A special place in the Marshall Plan was given to West Germany. After the end of World War II, West Germany essentially transformed from an enemy into a partner of the Western powers; it was assigned the role of an outpost in the fight against “Soviet communism.” Of all the Western European countries, the Marshall Plan gave clear preference to Germany. Thus, in the first years of the implementation of the “Marshall Plan” (1948-1951), Germany received from the United States almost as much as Great Britain and France combined and almost 3.5 times more than Italy. Banks in Germany traditionally took on commercial risk and a major role in ensuring industrialization, and were involved in the management of the companies being financed. After the collapse of the financial system due to World War II, the state began to acquire greater power to control the credit system, but the policies pursued were the result of negotiations and cooperation with major financial and industrial magnates. Funds received from the Marshall Plan were invested in the private and industrial sectors. However, banks were the backbone of the investment process. By participating in the capital of firms and purchasing blocks of shares, banks were thereby interested in the future of the industry and provided funds for its development. Encouraging capital accumulation and massive public investment in Germany became the main drivers of economic growth. The economic reforms of 1948 had a great impact on the development of the economy in Germany. The ideologist of these reforms was Professor of the University of Munich L. Erhard. In his writings on economic issues and in his practical activities, he advocated the formation of the so-called social market economy. His concept is based on the fact that the incentive for a person is the desire for his own well-being. Erhard defined the levers of the country's economic revival as free private initiative and competition with the active role of the state in economic life. The implementation of the “Marshall Plan” in Germany was, along with the Erhard reform, the most important condition for the transition from a totalitarian economy to a market one. But even more important was the decision made by the allies to return Germany to the political and economic arena of Europe. The lifting of restrictions on foreign trade allowed Germany to regain its leading position in Europe. The West German version of the transition from a centrally managed economy to a market represents a valuable experience for all countries tackling a similar task.

The Marshall Plan is structured in such a way that it not only ensures the import of goods into Germany, but also creates the basis for a new capital ratio. All subsidized imports, after the sale of goods to German producers or consumers, form a multi-billion dollar fund in German currency, which, since we are talking about loans, due to their long-term nature, does not need to be transferred abroad at first.

In the first year of the implementation of the Marshall Plan, in order to maintain a balance of imports and exports, exports will be dominated by the export of raw materials. In exports, the preliminary issuance of licenses should be replaced by subsequent control over the delivery of foreign currency to the bank. In imports, it is necessary to introduce foreign exchange certificates so that foreign trade banks can open letters of credit.

The need to maintain, for external reasons, the dualism of a centralist economy and an economy with a federal structure means a contradiction in economic policy in itself, because a decentralized planned economy is impossible. This contradiction will be removed by transferring greater economic independence to self-government bodies, and the state, after carrying out the monetary reform, will be engaged in pursuing foreign economic, higher goals, the definition of which is a matter of state policy.”

Thus, the history of the economic revival of Germany after the Second World War is one example of the successful implementation of the ideas of economic liberalization with balanced participation of the state in the economic life of the country and ensuring the social nature of economic transformations. Necessary conditions for the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany were external (Marshall Plan) and internal (political stability, political support for reforms, monetary reform, liberalization of prices and trade, including foreign, targeted and limited government intervention in economic life) factors.

The post-war reconstruction of Germany laid the foundation for the “economic miracle” - the rapid growth of the German economy in the fifties and sixties, ensured Germany's position in the European economy throughout the second half of the twentieth century, and became the economic basis for the unification of Germany at the end of the twentieth century.

3. National security doctrine and German foreign policy during the Cold War

One of the main events in the collapse of the world system of socialism and the revision of the results of World War II was the “unification of Germany,” or, more precisely, the Anschluss of the GDR carried out by the Federal Republic of Germany at the instigation of the United States and the connivance of Gorbachev’s leadership of the USSR.

After the war, Germany and Austria (part of Germany from 1938-1945) were divided into occupation zones between the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. At the same time, after the departure of the Allied troops, Austria remained a single neutral state, not part of any military blocs. It was planned to do the same with Germany. But the Western imperialists did not need a democratic, neutral Germany. In 1949, the American, British and French zones of occupation of Germany were united into a “trizonia”, which quickly transformed into the state of the Federal Republic of Germany and joined the aggressive NATO bloc. As a response, the USSR was forced to create the GDR in its occupation zone, which later became part of the Warsaw Pact bloc. At the same time, the leadership of the USSR, until 1953, insisted on a plan to create a united democratic Germany, and only under Khrushchev recognized the fact of the split of Germany and gave the green light to the construction of socialism in the GDR.

Thus, it was the Western “democracies” that initiated the split of Germany in the 1940s - if Germany had remained united then, it would inevitably have come under the influence of the USSR. Conversely, the same Western “democracies” that split Germany in 1949 demanded its unification in 1989 when the forces of socialism weakened.

At the end of 1989, when socialism had already been overthrown in many countries of Eastern Europe, the political system in the GDR still remained unshakable, which could not but cause displeasure among anti-communist elements. The message from the Ministry of Security (Stasi) spoke of the growing desire of individuals to destabilize the political situation in the country and ultimately change the system of social relations. The note also indicated the approximate number of representatives of opposition groups and movements: about 2,500 people.

The immediate cause of the crisis was that in early May Hungary opened its border with Austria. This did not go unnoticed; thousands of people rushed through Hungary to Austria, and then to Germany. At the end of July, unofficial statistics recorded the visa-free departure of 150 citizens of the GDR; by mid-August the flow increased to 1,600 people, and by the end of September the number of those who left was 25,000. Thousands and thousands more who did not want to return to the GDR remained in Warsaw, they contacted the German Embassy asking for political asylum.

October 6, 1989 marked the 40th anniversary of the creation of the GDR. In his speech on this date, the then leader of the GDR and its ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), Erich Honecker, described the situation in the country as a complete idyll; the title of his solemn speech sounded like this: “The great thing that was done was done by the people and for the people.” Instead of taking a critical look at the current situation in the country and, perhaps, extinguishing the sparks that threaten to turn into raging flames, Erich Honecker limited himself to boring and unreflective slogans like “Always forward and only forward.” The GDR, he said, would approach the threshold of the 2nd millennium with the conviction that the future belongs to socialism, even if “the influential forces of the Federal Republic of Germany” sense a chance to bring about the results of the Second World War and all post-war development in one fell swoop.”

Meanwhile, an anti-government demonstration of thousands took place in the city. The police tried to disperse the demonstrators, but it was useless: people kept coming and staying. The demonstrators tried to appeal to M.S. Gorbachev, who was then visiting the GDR. The people chanted: “Gorbi, Gorbi!”

Only on October 11 did the Politburo of the SED Central Committee show the first signs of concern about the situation in the country. It published a statement in which for the first time one could discern an attempt to analyze the actual situation in the country. On October 17, 1989, at a meeting of the Politburo, Erich Honecker was removed from his post as General Secretary of the SED. In his place, Egon Krenz, member of the Politburo and Secretary of the Central Committee for Security Affairs, was elected. He was chosen for this post by a small group of people who were ready for changes in the Politburo, but this concerned only the individuals represented in it, and in no way a change in the overall political strategy. For the majority of citizens of the GDR, he was Honecker’s henchman and henchman.

However, a number of historians agree that if the steps that Krenz took had been taken several weeks (not to mention months) earlier, they would probably have been perceived as decisive measures and would have been warmly welcomed: literally the next day after his election, Krenz met with leading representatives of the church and participated in discussions with representatives of the working class on the current political situation.

The day before the grandiose demonstration on November 4, 1989 in Berlin, which served as a signal for the beginning of the collapse of the existing system, Egon Krenz appeared on television offering individual concessions. But it did not help. The demonstration, which lasted several days, ended with the demolition of the Berlin Wall on November 9, dividing the eastern regions of Berlin (the capital of the GDR) and “West Berlin”, formed from the American, British and French occupation zones of Berlin.

On the night of December 7–8, 1989, the extraordinary congress of the SED began its work. The party dissociated itself from the so-called. “totalitarian past”, proclaimed itself a “civilized social democratic party of the Western model” and renamed itself the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS). On December 9, Egon Krenz was dismissed.

Immediately after the collapse of the socialist system in the GDR, the question of its unification with the Federal Republic of Germany arose and the agreement on establishing the unity of Germany was signed on August 31, 1990 in Berlin.

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